From Movement to Mind: How Motor Competence and Physical Activity Support Cognitive Functions and Academic Learning

Motor competence, physical activity, and cognitive functions have all been shown to predict academic performance (Best et al., 2011; Donelly et al., 2016; Syväoja et al., 2019). Cognitive function (in Finnish tiedollinen/kognitiivinen toiminta) refers to the mental processes involved in information processing, enabling individuals to receive, process, store, and utilize information. Executive function (in Finnish toiminnanohjaus) refers to a set of higher-order cognitive processes that support self-regulation and goal-directed behaviour. Core executive functions include working memory for holding and manipulating information, inhibition for focusing attention and suppressing distractions and unwanted responses, and cognitive flexibility for shifting between mental states, rules, or tasks. (Diamond, 2013.)

Motor competence (in Finnish motorinen pätevyys) refers to an individual’s proficiency in a wide range of motor skills and movement patterns (Robinson et al., 2015). The terminology used in the literature to describe human movement skills is diverse, and similar constructs are referred to using terms such as motor coordination (in Finnish motorinen koordinaatio), motor proficiency (in Finnish motorinen osaaminen), motor performance (in Finnish motorinen suorituskyky), motor ability (in Finnish motorinen kyvykkyys), and fundamental movement/motor skills (in Finnish motoriset perustaidot) (Lopes et al., 2021; Robinson et al., 2015). Motor skills are learned actions aimed at a clear goal, requiring coordination and control of the motor system to ensure efficient and predictable performance. In turn, fundamental motor skills, including balance skills (such as body orientation and postural stability), locomotor skills (such as running and skipping), and manipulative skills (such as throwing and catching), are unique and nearly universal patterns that provide the foundation for acquiring more complex motor skills. (Newell, 2020.) Fine motor skills involve the coordinated use of small muscles to perform precise movements (e.g., writing, drawing, and manipulating small objects) (Goodway et al., 2019).

Physical activity is defined as “any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure” (Caspersen et al., 1985). In this article, we describe how cognitive functions, motor competence and physical activity are interlinked and how they contribute to learning and academic performance.

A Reinforcing Cycle: How Physical Activity and Motor Competence Influence Each Other

It is suggested that fundamental movement skills form the foundation for engaging in physical activity (Clark & Metcalfe, 2002; Stodden et al., 2008). Motor development progresses in childhood in stages: first, skills related to postural control (e.g., sitting, standing) develop, followed by locomotor skills, and finally manipulative skills. These skills provide the building blocks for learning the more complex actions of sport and physical activity in diverse contexts. (Newel, 2020.)

The development of motor competence is not merely a biological process; it is strongly influenced by environmental factors such as opportunities for movement, guided practice, social support, and cultural practices (Stodden et al., 2008; Jaakkola et al., 2015). During development, a child’s experiences, motivation, and perception of their own competence shape their participation in physical activity. For example, low motor competence and low perceived motor competence predict lower engagement in physical activity (Jaakkola et al., 2019; Stodden et al., 2008). In contrast, competence can strengthen self-esteem and increase participation in physical activity. This creates either a positive or negative developmental spiral, in which motor competence, perceived competence, and physical activity reinforce or weaken each other. Motor development is dynamic and individual, as children progress at different rates and follow diverse developmental pathways. Supporting development at an early stage is essential to ensure that children can participate in physical activity, develop physically, and maintain an active lifestyle later in life. (Stodden et al., 2008).

Although motor development generally follows a predictable sequence, there is inter-individual variation in the timing of milestone attainment. For example, children typically achieve independent walking, one of the early motor milestones, between 8.2 and 17.6 months of age (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006). Although delayed attainment of independent walking (≥15 months) has been associated with an increased risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). (Faebo Larsen et al., 2013. However, motor developmental trajectories vary considerably across children, and early milestone attainment alone does not determine later motor outcomes.

Approximately 5–6 per cent of children experience persistent difficulties in acquiring and executing motor skills despite adequate learning opportunities. DCD is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by substantial impairments in motor coordination that interfere with everyday activities and academic achievement (APA, 2013). Children and adolescents with DCD are typically less physically active and demonstrate lower levels of physical fitness than their peers (Cairney et al., 2011). Consequently, they are at increased risk of entering a negative developmental pathway in which motor difficulties restrict opportunities for participation, further limiting motor learning and engagement in physical activity (Stodden et al., 2008).

Supporting Cognitive Functions Through Motor Skill Development and Physical Activity

Evidence suggests that cognitive and motor competence co-develop from early childhood throughout adolescence (Davis et al., 2011). Especially, motor competence and executive functions are positively associated in 5–18-year-olds (Bao et al., 2024; Gandotra et al., 2022). The relationship seems to be similar in young adults as well, although a little bit weaker (Ghorhanzadeh et al., 2025). Children with DCD often experience challenges in executive functioning, which may contribute to difficulties in academic performance and everyday functioning (Blank et al., 2019; Cantell et al., 2003; Fogel et al., 2023).

Physical activity has been shown to have both acute and long-term positive effects on cognitive functions in childhood and adolescence (Hillman et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2025). The current evidence for young adults is comparable; however, the phenomenon is less studied, and findings are more inconsistent (Haverkamp et al., 2020). Regardless of age, physical activity enhances especially executive function, memory, and general cognition (Singh et al., 2025). Our latest findings complement previous research by showing that higher cumulative physical activity from childhood to midlife is associated with a smaller decrease in cognitive function in midlife, particularly in executive domains (Syväoja et al., 2026). To summarize the evidence, both motor competence and physical activity appear to support optimal cognitive functioning.

The Role of Motor Competence, Physical Activity, and Cognitive Function in Academic Success – Integrating Movement into Academic Lessons

Since motor competence and physical activity, at their best, constitute a positive reinforcing spiral and appear to positively affect cognitive functions at different stages of life, they are also considered to contribute to academic success. Higher levels of both physical activity and motor competence have been associated with better academic performance in childhood and adolescence (Barbosa et al., 2020; Wang & Wang, 2024), as well as among university students (Trott et al., 2024). Recent evidence by Wang and Wang (2024) further suggests that both gross and fine motor skills are positively associated with academic achievement, although the associations appear to be stronger and more consistent for fine motor skills. Fine motor competence has been linked particularly to mathematics, reading, writing, and spelling performance, highlighting the potential importance of motor skill development for educational outcomes across childhood and adolescence.

The association has been attributed to evidence suggesting that motor development and physical activity enhance cognitive functioning, which in turn contributes to improved academic performance (Syväoja et al., 2021; Fernández-Sánchez et al., 2025). Especially, it has been proposed that physical activities involving strategic behaviour, complex motor coordination, or adaptation to changing conditions may have a greater impact on cognition (Pesce et al., 2016; Schmidt et al., 2015). The cognitive stimulation hypothesis (Best, 2010; Pesce, 2012) suggests that demanding, non-automated physical activities activate brain regions responsible for executive functions, thereby supporting academic achievement. Besides the mediating effect of cognition, the benefits of physical activity for academic performance may also be mediated by factors such as enhanced self-esteem (Lubans et al., 2016), improved social (Viskari et al., 2025) and mental well-being (Donnelly et al., 2024), or increased engagement in studies (Oven et al., 2016).

The beneficial interplay between motor competence, physical activity, and cognitive functions in supporting academic performance has encouraged the integration of movement and physical activity into pedagogical practices, not only in primary and secondary education, but also in higher education. Physically active learning (combination of physical activity with academic content) and physical activity breaks have been shown to improve learning outcomes, task concentration, engagement in learning, and enjoyment during lessons among primary and secondary school students (Norris et al., 2020; Bedard et al., 2019; Masini et al., 2020). Furthermore, recent findings indicate that school-based motor skill interventions can effectively enhance motor competence in children and adolescents with DCD (Pohjanvirta et al., 2026). Improved motor competence may also strengthen participation in school activities and create better conditions for learning and wellbeing.

Physically active learning and activity breaks have also shown to be feasible and well-accepted in higher education settings (Lynch et al., 2022), showing promising effects on alertness, attention, and concentration as well as on enjoyment and wellbeing among students (Pastor-Vicedo et al., 2024; Niedermeier & Kopp, 2020; Peiris et al., 2021; Paulus et al., 2022). Despite the benefits, movement and physical activity have not been systematically or strategically utilized in education settings, especially in secondary or higher education (Rajala et al., 2025; Ribeiro-Silva et al., 2022).

From Evidence to Action: Current Research and Development Initiatives

Motor competence, physical activity, cognition, and academic achievement should not be viewed as separate domains of child development. Instead, they form an interconnected system in which progress or challenges in one area may influence the others. Schools that foster movement, participation, and skill development for all children can enhance long-term comprehensive health and wellbeing while also supporting learning. These findings are particularly relevant in Finland, where the promotion of a physically active lifestyle has recently been incorporated into the objectives of pre-primary and basic education through an amendment to the Basic Education Act, effective from August 2026 (Basic Education Act 628/1998, amended 2025).

Also in higher education settings, the links between physical activity, well-being, and learning have been recognized. For example, at Jamk University of Applied Sciences, we place a strong emphasis on wellbeing and physical activity, which constitute one of our focus areas of expertise. Furthermore, Jamk’s (n.d.) new pedagogical principles guide educators to implement pedagogy that considers students’ study ability and utilizes movement and physical activity in learning. The intention is to promote both academic success and students’ comprehensive wellbeing.

Jamk/Likes currently leads several research and development projects (PalColl, PAAL, MoDiSchool, SchoolWell, Boogie Boots) that address the interconnections between physical activity, motor competence, and cognitive functioning across the lifespan. Together, these projects advance understanding of how physically active lifestyles, motor development, and physically active pedagogical practices contribute to learning, wellbeing, and lifelong cognitive performance. In addition, the projects develop evidence-based methods, pedagogical practices, and educational materials that support teachers and educators in promoting movement, learning, and wellbeing across educational levels.